Copper (CED0000449)

Record Information

Version

1.0

Creation Date

2009-03-06 18:58:08 UTC

Update Date

2026-05-14 19:02:44 UTC

Accession Number

CHEM000118

Identification

Common Name

Copper

Class

Small Molecule

Description

Copper belongs to the homogeneous transition metal compounds, a class of homogeneous metal compounds within the inorganic compounds. It is an exogenous solid with the formula Cu and an average molecular weight of 63.55 g/mol. Industrially, copper is utilized as a catalyst (PMC10671087, PMC11164697, PMC11467972), conductive agent, alloying element, pigment, dye, solvent, stabilizer (PMC4706233), plating agent, corrosion inhibitor, biocide, insecticide (PMC7995756), and pesticide (PMC13275518). It also serves as a Lewis acid (PMC3818381). Biologically and environmentally, copper acts as a micronutrient (PMC11537572, PMC12284794, PMC7930903, PMC8402239, PMC8747683), nutrient (PMC4514794), biological cofactor (PMC13063652, PMC13114907, PMC8626030), antioxidant (PMC11563972, PMC2733852), antimicrobial agent (PMC12768330, PMC8347515), antibacterial agent (PMC9059919), fungicide (PMC13416924), and protective agent (PMC7875889). It is also classified as a heavy metal (PMC10161712, PMC13005783), emetic (PMC4311390), and endocrine disruptor (PMC5534122). Copper is detected in the brain, hair, liver, kidney, intestine, and erythrocytes. It is released from various sources, including electrical equipment, household items, building materials, and food contact materials, as well as plastics such as polypropylene, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride. Exposure occurs via touch, oral routes, inhalation (PMC12531986), and smoking (PMC12531986). The compound targets 158 proteins, including ATOX1, ATP7A, ATP7B, and the Beta-2 adrenergic receptor. It binds to alpha-synuclein and amyloid-beta precursor protein, which may contribute to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Excess copper can inhibit sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glutathione reductase, glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, and paraoxonases. Health associations include Wilson disease (PMC3905172), anemia (PMC10794432, PMC11597460, PMC12817343, PMC6537257), cancer (PMC10189484, PMC8986829), and renal failure (PMC6537257). It is associated with hypertension (PMC4412113) and coronary artery disease (PMC4412113). Conversely, it is used as a treatment for insomnia (PMC3504157) and has a therapeutic effect on COVID-19 (PMC9059919).

Contaminant Type

Copper Compound
Food Toxin
Household Toxin
Human Neurotoxin
Industrial/Workplace Toxin
Inorganic Compound
Metabolite
Metal
Natural Compound
Pollutant

Chemical Structure

MOL SDF PDB SMILES InChI

Synonyms

Value	Source
COPPER (II) ion	ChEBI
Copper(II) cation	ChEBI
Copper, ion (cu2+)	ChEBI
Cu(II)	ChEBI
Cu2+	ChEBI
Cu(2+)	ChEBI
Cupric ion	ChEBI
Cu	HMDB

Chemical Formula

Average Molecular Mass

63.546 g/mol

Monoisotopic Mass

62.930 g/mol

CAS Registry Number

7440-50-8

IUPAC Name

copper(2+) ion

Traditional Name

copper(2+) ion

SMILES

[Cu++]

InChI Identifier

InChI=1S/Cu/q+2

InChI Key

JPVYNHNXODAKFH-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Chemical Taxonomy

Description

Belongs to the class of inorganic compounds known as homogeneous transition metal compounds. These are inorganic compounds containing only metal atoms,with the largest atom being a transition metal atom.

Kingdom

Inorganic compounds

Super Class

Homogeneous metal compounds

Class

Homogeneous transition metal compounds

Sub Class

Not Available

Direct Parent

Homogeneous transition metal compounds

Alternative Parents

Not Available

Substituents

Homogeneous transition metal

Molecular Framework

Not Available

External Descriptors

monoatomic dication (CHEBI:29036 )
divalent metal cation (CHEBI:29036 )
copper cation (CHEBI:29036 )
a cation (CU+2 )

Biological Properties

Status

Detected and Not Quantified

Origin

Exogenous

Cellular Locations

Cytoplasm
Extracellular

Biofluid Locations

Not Available

Tissue Locations

Brain
Erythrocyte
Hair
Intestine
Kidney
Liver

Applications

Not Available

Biological Roles

Chemical Roles

Not Available

Organoleptic Effects

Not Available

Physical Properties

State

Solid

Appearance

Reddish metallic solid.

Experimental Properties

Property	Value
Melting Point	1083°C
Boiling Point	2595°C (4703°F)
Solubility	Not Available

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
logP	0.16	ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	3.09	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	2	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	0	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	0	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	0 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	0	ChemAxon
Refractivity	0 m³·mol⁻¹	ChemAxon
Polarizability	1.78 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	0	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	Yes	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	No	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	Yes	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	No	ChemAxon

Spectra

Spectrum Type	Description	Splash Key	Deposition Date	View
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-59c652eccc13cc365f65	Not Available	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-59c652eccc13cc365f65	Not Available	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-59c652eccc13cc365f65	Not Available	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-9acd78ab9faeb89677a7	Not Available	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-9acd78ab9faeb89677a7	Not Available	View Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MS	Predicted LC-MS/MS Spectrum	splash10-03di-9000000000-9acd78ab9faeb89677a7	Not Available	View Spectrum

Toxicity Profile

Mechanism of Toxicity

Excess copper is sequestered within hepatocyte lysosomes, where it is complexed with metallothionein. Copper hepatotoxicity is believed to occur when the lysosomes become saturated and copper accumulates in the nucleus, causing nuclear damage. This damage is possibly a result of oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. Copper inhibits the sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and paraoxonases, which protect the cell from free oxygen radicals. It also influences gene expression and is a co-factor for oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome C oxidase and lysyl oxidase. In addition, the oxidative stress induced by copper is thought to activate acid sphingomyelinase, which lead to the production of ceramide, an apoptotic signal, as well as cause hemolytic anemia. Copper-induced emesis results from stimulation of the vagus nerve. (24, 30, 1, 27)

Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)

No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC).

Minimum Risk Level

Acute Oral: 0.01 mg/kg/day (23) Intermediate Oral: 0.01 mg/kg/day (23)

Symptoms

Breathing high levels of copper can cause irritation of the nose and throat. Acute symptoms of copper poisoning by ingestion include vomiting, hematemesis (vomiting of blood), hypotension (low blood pressure), melena (black "tarry" feces), coma, jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of the skin), and gastrointestinal distress. Individuals with glucose-6-phosphate deficiency may be at increased risk of hematologic effects of copper. Hemolytic anemia resulting from the treatment of burns with copper compounds is infrequent. Chronic (long-term) effects of copper exposure can damage the liver and kidneys.

Treatment

In cases of suspected copper poisoning, penicillamine is the drug of choice, and dimercaprol, a heavy metal chelating agent, is often administered. Vinegar is not recommended, as it assists in solubilizing insoluble copper salts.

Toxicity Values

Toxicity Value	Unit	Value Range	Organism	Dose Descriptor	Route of Exposure	Predicted or Experimental	Reference
3500.0	ug/kg	Not Available	Mouse	LD50	Intraperitoneal	experimental	T26

Health Effects

Health Effect	Relationship	Direction	Reference
lung cancer	associated_with	increase	PMC11537572 , PMC13486686
hypertension	elevated_in_blood_in	Not Available	PMC4412113 , PMC4412113
hypertension	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12776587
blood pressure	associated_with	increase	PMC8713646
inflammation	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10525124 , PMC3934373
cancer	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10189484 , PMC8986829
dizziness	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10874124
breast cancer	elevated_in_urine_in	increase	PMC7697569
breast cancer	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11537572
low birth weight	associated_with	Not Available	PMC3998679
anemia	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10794432 , PMC11597460 , PMC12817343 , PMC6537257
anemia	is_treatment_for	Not Available	PMC10434068
multiple sclerosis	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11890113
insomnia	is_treatment_for	Not Available	PMC3504157
insomnia	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12473263
renal failure	associated_with	Not Available	PMC6537257
colorectal cancer	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11537572
infertility	associated_with	Not Available	PMC7644792
ischemic stroke	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12426023
ischemic stroke	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC11563972
stroke	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10946040
stroke	associated_with	increase	PMC12426023
diarrhea	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11597460
neutropenia	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11597460
headache	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10819315
hepatitis	associated_with	Not Available	PMC6270032
anxiety	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC11563972
depression	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC11563972
depression	associated_with	increase	PMC4120423
abdominal pain	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10653099 , PMC11597460
obesity	elevated_in_blood_in	increase	PMC11786877
obesity	decreased_in_blood_in	decrease	PMC11786877
obesity	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12732708
COVID-19	associated_with	increase	PMC8228873
COVID-19	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC9059919
nausea	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12228674 , PMC9099534
vomiting	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12228674 , PMC13416924 , PMC4624377
heart failure	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12348504
traumatic brain injury	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC11563972
myocardial infarction	elevated_in_blood_in	Not Available	PMC4412113
allergic contact dermatitis	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11246752
thyroid cancer	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11537572
male infertility	associated_with	increase	PMC9635604
liver disease	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10819315
diabetic retinopathy	associated_with	Not Available	PMC13372820 , PMC13372820
diabetic retinopathy	associated_with	increase	PMC13372820
Food allergy	associated_with	inverse	PMC13114907
coronary artery disease	elevated_in_blood_in	Not Available	PMC4412113
methemoglobinemia	associated_with	Not Available	PMC1392223
chronic inflammation	associated_with	Not Available	PMC7673086
renal insufficiency	associated_with	Not Available	PMC9099534
disease	is_treatment_for	Not Available	PMC10434068
epilepsy	is_treatment_for	Not Available	PMC11563972
epilepsy	decreased_in_blood_in	Not Available	PMC11497999
Endometriosis	associated_with	increase	PMC9908711 , PMC9908711 , PMC9908711
contact dermatitis	associated_with	Not Available	PMC12072035
hyperactivity	associated_with	decrease	PMC8618748
major depressive disorder	has_therapeutic_effect_on	Not Available	PMC11563972
conjunctivitis	associated_with	Not Available	PMC11246752
kidney failure	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10794432
pancytopenia	associated_with	decrease	PMC13416924
Wilson disease	associated_with	Not Available	PMC3905172
periodontitis	associated_with	increase	PMC7697569
mastitis	associated_with	decrease	PMC10800369
muscular dystrophy	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10259682
pertussis	associated_with	decrease	PMC12991553
hemolytic anemia	associated_with	Not Available	PMC10874124
fibromyalgia	elevated_in_blood_in	increase	PMC9556195

Exposure Sources

Source ID	Source	Sector	Reference
233	Brushes	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
494	Food contact materials	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
495	Ceilings	Building & Construction	Not Available
496	Fencing	Building & Construction	Not Available
497	Floors	Building & Construction	Not Available
498	Ladders	Building & Construction	Not Available
499	Roofs	Building & Construction	Not Available
500	Stairs And Ramps	Building & Construction	Not Available
501	Sunshades Awnings Or Outside Screens	Building & Construction	Not Available
502	Sunshades Awnings Or Outside Screens	Building & Construction	Not Available
503	Tents Or Canopies	Building & Construction	Not Available
504	Adjustable Resistors	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
505	Amplifiers	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
506	Antennas	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
507	Auxiliary Devices	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
508	Coils	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
509	Colour Television Systems	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
510	Communication Cables Or Conductors	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
512	Contacts	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
513	Cores Yokes Or Armatures	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
514	Discharge Lamps	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
515	Discharge Tubes With Liquid Pool Cathodes	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
516	Electric Hearing Aids	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
517	Electric Switches	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
518	Electrically Stimulated Smoking Devices	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
520	Emergency Protective Devices	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
521	Fixed Capacitors And Their Manufacture	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
523	Gas Filled Discharge Tubes With Solid Cathode	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
525	Line Transmission Systems	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
526	Loudspeakers	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
527	Magnets	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
528	Microphones	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
529	Power Cables	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
530	Radio Transmission Systems	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
531	Relays	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
532	Selectors	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
533	Sparking Plugs	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
534	Still Video Cameras	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
535	Superconducting Magnets And Superconducting Coils	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
536	Superconductive Or Hyperconductive Conductors Cables Or Transmission Lines	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
537	Television Systems	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
538	Thin Magnetic Films	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
539	Video Games	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
540	X Ray Tubes	Electrical & Electronic Equipment	Not Available
542	Brew Kettles	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
543	Cellar Tools	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
544	Fermentation Processes For Beer	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
547	Preparation Of Malt	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
548	Preparation Of Vinegar	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
549	Preparation Of Wine Or Sparkling Wine	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
550	Preparation Of Wort	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
551	Processing Fish	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
552	Processing Meats	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
553	Treatment Of Hops	Food, food processing & cookware	Not Available
554	Ash Trays	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
555	Bleaching Agents	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
556	Cigar Cigarettes	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
558	Match Receptables Or Boxes	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
559	Non Electric Simulated Smoking Devices	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
560	Other Smoking Requisites	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
562	Pipe Accessories	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
564	Soap Dispensers	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
566	Tobacco Pipes	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
567	Tobacco Product Cases	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
568	Tobacco Product Moisture Control	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
569	Tobacco Smoke Filters	Household cleaning & consumer products	Not Available
570	Badges	Household items	Not Available
571	Coins	Household items	Not Available
572	Credit Card Holders	Household items	Not Available
573	Key Rings	Household items	Not Available
574	Medals	Household items	Not Available
575	Rosaries	Household items	Not Available
577	Watch Chains	Household items	Not Available
578	Making Cigars	Industrial manufacturing & chemical processing	Not Available
579	Manufacture Of Iron Or Steel	Industrial manufacturing & chemical processing	Not Available
581	Paper Making Machines	Industrial manufacturing & chemical processing	Not Available
582	Aircraft Carriers	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
583	Anchoring Equipment	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
584	Buoys	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
585	Canoes And Kayaks	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
587	Gun Or Missile Launchers	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
588	Inflatable Life Saving Equipment	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
589	Life Buoys	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
590	Lifeboat Equipment	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
591	Lifeboats	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
592	Marine Propulsion Or Steering	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
593	Nautical Instruments	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
594	Ship Hulls	Marine, shipping & aquaculture	Not Available
596	Acaricides	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
598	Fertiliser Distributors	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
601	Lawn Mowers	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
602	Molluscicides	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
603	Nematocides	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
604	Pest Attractants	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
605	Pest Repellants	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
607	Rodenticides(1)	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
608	Rodenticides	Agriculture & land management	Not Available
609	Aftershave	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
610	Aftersun Products	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
612	Body Washing Or Cleaning Implements	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
613	Depilatories	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
616	Face Mask Cosmetics	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
617	Lip Care Products	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
619	Manicure Pedicure	Personal care & cosmetics	Not Available
620	Card Games	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
621	Chutes And Slides	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
622	Game Accessories	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
624	Merry Go Rounds	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
625	Racing Sports	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
627	Roulette Games	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
628	See Saws	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
629	Swings	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
630	Toys	Recreation & sports surfaces	Not Available
631	Anthraquinone Dyes	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
633	Azo Dyes	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
634	Buckles	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
635	Buttons	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
637	Collar Studs	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
638	Decorating Textiles	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
639	Degreasing Leather	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
640	Embroidering And Tufting	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
642	Footwear	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
643	Headwear	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
644	Hook Or Eye Fasteners	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
645	Inorganic Fibres	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
647	Multicolour Dyeing	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
648	Nitro Dyes	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
649	Pins Clothes	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
650	Purses Luggage Hand Bags	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
651	Purses Money Bags Wallets	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
652	Ropes	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
653	Sewing	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
654	Sleeve Links	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
655	Slide Fasteners	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
656	Snap Fasteners	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
657	Surface Finishing Of Leather	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
658	Touch Fasteners	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
659	Transfer Printing	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
660	Turn Button Fasteners	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
661	Umbrellas	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
662	Yarns Or Threads	Textiles, leather & furnishings	Not Available
663	Sanitary Equipment	Wastewater, sanitation & biosolids	Not Available

Pathways

70 pathways

beta-Alanine Metabolism

Catecholamine Biosynthesis

Degradation of Superoxides

Riboflavin Metabolism

Histidine Metabolism

Aromatic L-Aminoacid Decarboxylase Deficiency

GABA-Transaminase Deficiency

Histidinemia

Tyrosine Metabolism

Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain

Alkaptonuria

Hawkinsinuria

View all 70 pathways

Targets

Structure	Protein	UniProt ID	Organism	Relationship	Details
Click to view 3D structure	Major prion protein	P04156	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Metallothionein-3	P25713	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase	P11413	Humans	Known	Excess copper is sequestered within hepatocyte lysosomes, where it is complexed with metallothionein. Copper hepatotoxicity is believed to occur when the lysosomes become saturated and copper accumulates in the nucleus, causing nuclear damage. This damage is possibly a result of oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. Copper inhibits the sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and paraoxonases, which protect the cell from free oxygen radicals. It also influences gene expression and is a co-factor for oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome C oxidase and lysyl oxidase. In addition, the oxidative stress induced by copper is thought to activate acid sphingomyelinase, which lead to the production of ceramide, an apoptotic signal, as well as cause hemolytic anemia. (L277, T49, A174, L280)
Click to view 3D structure	Glutathione reductase, mitochondrial	P00390	Humans	Known	Excess copper is sequestered within hepatocyte lysosomes, where it is complexed with metallothionein. Copper hepatotoxicity is believed to occur when the lysosomes become saturated and copper accumulates in the nucleus, causing nuclear damage. This damage is possibly a result of oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. Copper inhibits the sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and paraoxonases, which protect the cell from free oxygen radicals. It also influences gene expression and is a co-factor for oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome C oxidase and lysyl oxidase. In addition, the oxidative stress induced by copper is thought to activate acid sphingomyelinase, which lead to the production of ceramide, an apoptotic signal, as well as cause hemolytic anemia. (L277, T49, A174, L280)
Click to view 3D structure	Serum paraoxonase/arylesterase 1	P27169	Humans	Known	Excess copper is sequestered within hepatocyte lysosomes, where it is complexed with metallothionein. Copper hepatotoxicity is believed to occur when the lysosomes become saturated and copper accumulates in the nucleus, causing nuclear damage. This damage is possibly a result of oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. Copper inhibits the sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and paraoxonases, which protect the cell from free oxygen radicals. It also influences gene expression and is a co-factor for oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome C oxidase and lysyl oxidase. In addition, the oxidative stress induced by copper is thought to activate acid sphingomyelinase, which lead to the production of ceramide, an apoptotic signal, as well as cause hemolytic anemia. (L277, T49, A174, L280)
Click to view 3D structure	Serum paraoxonase/lactonase 3	Q15166	Humans	Known	Excess copper is sequestered within hepatocyte lysosomes, where it is complexed with metallothionein. Copper hepatotoxicity is believed to occur when the lysosomes become saturated and copper accumulates in the nucleus, causing nuclear damage. This damage is possibly a result of oxidative damage, including lipid peroxidation. Copper inhibits the sulfhydryl group enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and paraoxonases, which protect the cell from free oxygen radicals. It also influences gene expression and is a co-factor for oxidative enzymes such as cytochrome C oxidase and lysyl oxidase. In addition, the oxidative stress induced by copper is thought to activate acid sphingomyelinase, which lead to the production of ceramide, an apoptotic signal, as well as cause hemolytic anemia. (L277, T49, A174, L280)
Click to view 3D structure	Amyloid-beta precursor protein	P05067	Humans	Known	Copper binds the N-terminal region of amyloid precursor protein, promoting the generation of β-amyloid from the protein. This is believed to contribute to the development of the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. (A173)
Click to view 3D structure	Copper-transporting ATPase 2	P35670	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Copper chaperone for superoxide dismutase	O14618	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Copper transport protein ATOX1	O00244	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Alpha-synuclein	P37840	Humans	Known	Copper binds to alpha-synuclein, initiating protein aggregation and likely contributing to the development of the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. (A173)
Click to view 3D structure	Beta-2 adrenergic receptor	P07550	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Ceruloplasmin	P00450	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Copper-transporting ATPase 1	Q04656	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Endonuclease 8-like 1	Q96FI4	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Endonuclease 8-like 2	Q969S2	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Ferroxidase HEPHL1	Q6MZM0	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Protein SCO1 homolog, mitochondrial	O75880	Humans	Known	Not Available
Click to view 3D structure	Superoxide dismutase [Cu-Zn]	P00441	Humans	Known	Not Available