Digoxin (CED0001594)

Record Information
Version1.0
Creation Date2009-07-15 20:45:04 UTC
Update Date2026-05-14 16:37:20 UTC
SynCED IDCED0001594
Secondary Accession Numbers
  • CHEM002115
  • T3D2670
Identification
Common NameDigoxin
ClassSmall Molecule
Description
Digoxin belongs to the steroid lactones, a subclass of steroids and steroid derivatives within the organic compounds. With an average molecular weight of 780.94 g/mol, Digoxin is a heavy molecule. This exogenous compound has the chemical formula C41H64O14 and exists as a solid at room temperature. It is detected in several tissues, including the liver, kidney, platelet, small intestine, and hypothalamus. Recorded exposure routes include oral, intravenous, intramuscular, parenteral, inhalation, and touch. Digoxin is a drug (PMC10747198, PMC6559788) that functions as a cardiotonic drug, an anti-arrhythmia drug, and a biological epitope. It acts as an inhibitor (PMC10893382) and an inhibitor of EC 3.6.3.9 (Na(+)/K(+)-transporting ATPase) (PMC10747198, PMC6559788). Its protein targets include the sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1 (ATP1A1) and the solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1 (SLCO1B1). By inhibiting the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, Digoxin increases intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations, which may promote the activation of contractile proteins such as myosin and actin. Additionally, it modifies the electrical activity of the heart by decreasing the maximal diastolic potential, shortening the action potential duration, and increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization. It also serves as an inhibitor/modulator of the Vitamin D3 receptor (VDR), Nuclear receptor ROR-beta (RORB), Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARA), and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG). Clinically, Digoxin is used as a treatment for congestive heart failure (PMC8332605), heart failure (PMC7833388), atrial fibrillation (PMC3526672, PMC7833388), cough (PMC1492602), and dyspnea (PMC1492602). It is associated with bradycardia (PMC9283731).
Contaminant Type
  • Anti-Arrhythmia Agent
  • Cardiotonic Agent
  • Drug
  • Enzyme Inhibitor
  • Ester
  • Food Toxin
  • Human Neurotoxin
  • Metabolite
  • Natural Compound
  • Organic Compound
  • PFAS
  • Phytotoxin
  • Plant Toxin
Chemical Structure
Synonyms
ValueSource
12beta-HydroxydigitoxinChEBI
LanoxicapsKegg
LanoxinKegg
12b-HydroxydigitoxinGenerator
12Β-hydroxydigitoxinGenerator
CardoxinHMDB
CogoxinHMDB
DavoxinHMDB
DigacinHMDB
Digitalis glycosideHMDB
Digoxin pediatricHMDB
DilanacinHMDB
DynamosHMDB
EudigoxHMDB
Homolle'S digitalinHMDB
LanacristHMDB
LanicorHMDB
Neo-lanicorHMDB
RougoxinHMDB
SK-DigoxinHMDB
VanoxinHMDB
AWD.pharma brand OF digoxinHMDB
Boehringer, digoxinaHMDB
Hemigoxine nativelleHMDB
Nativelle, hemigoxineHMDB
Novartis brand OF digoxinHMDB
Roche brand OF digoxinHMDB
Teofarma brand OF digoxinHMDB
Lanoxin PGHMDB
Lanoxin-PGHMDB
R.A.N. brand OF digoxinHMDB
DigoregenHMDB
Digoxina boehringerHMDB
Kern brand OF digoxinHMDB
LanacordinHMDB
Lilly brand OF digoxinHMDB
MapluxinHMDB
Proctor and gamble brand OF digoxinHMDB
UDL brand OF digoxinHMDB
Virco brand OF digoxinHMDB
Bertek brand OF digoxinHMDB
DigitekHMDB
Digoxine nativelleHMDB
Glaxo wellcome brand OF digoxinHMDB
GlaxoSmithKline brand 1 OF digoxinHMDB
GlaxoSmithKline brand 2 OF digoxinHMDB
LenoxinHMDB
Nativelle, digoxineHMDB
Chemical FormulaC41H64O14
Average Molecular Mass780.939 g/mol
Monoisotopic Mass780.430 g/mol
CAS Registry Number20830-75-5
IUPAC Name4-[(1S,2S,5S,7R,10R,11S,14R,15S,16R)-5-{[(2R,4S,5S,6R)-5-{[(2S,4S,5S,6R)-5-{[(2S,4S,5S,6R)-4,5-dihydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy}-4-hydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy}-4-hydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy}-11,16-dihydroxy-2,15-dimethyltetracyclo[8.7.0.0²,⁷.0¹¹,¹⁵]heptadecan-14-yl]-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-one
Traditional Namedigoxin
SMILES[H][C@]12CC[C@]3([H])[C@]([H])(C[C@@H](O)[C@]4(C)[C@H](CC[C@]34O)C3=CC(=O)OC3)[C@@]1(C)CC[C@@H](C2)O[C@H]1C[C@H](O)[C@H](O[C@H]2C[C@H](O)[C@H](O[C@H]3C[C@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](C)O3)[C@@H](C)O2)[C@@H](C)O1
InChI IdentifierInChI=1S/C41H64O14/c1-19-36(47)28(42)15-34(50-19)54-38-21(3)52-35(17-30(38)44)55-37-20(2)51-33(16-29(37)43)53-24-8-10-39(4)23(13-24)6-7-26-27(39)14-31(45)40(5)25(9-11-41(26,40)48)22-12-32(46)49-18-22/h12,19-21,23-31,33-38,42-45,47-48H,6-11,13-18H2,1-5H3/t19-,20-,21-,23-,24+,25-,26-,27+,28+,29+,30+,31-,33+,34+,35+,36-,37-,38-,39+,40+,41+/m1/s1
InChI KeyLTMHDMANZUZIPE-PUGKRICDSA-N
Chemical Taxonomy
Description Belongs to the class of organic compounds known as cardenolide glycosides and derivatives. Cardenolide glycosides and derivatives are compounds containing a carbohydrate glycosidically bound to the cardenolide moiety.
KingdomOrganic compounds
Super ClassLipids and lipid-like molecules
ClassSteroids and steroid derivatives
Sub ClassSteroid lactones
Direct ParentCardenolide glycosides and derivatives
Alternative Parents
Substituents
  • Cardanolide-glycoside
  • Steroidal glycoside
  • Oligosaccharide
  • 12-hydroxysteroid
  • 14-hydroxysteroid
  • Hydroxysteroid
  • Glycosyl compound
  • O-glycosyl compound
  • 2-furanone
  • Oxane
  • Cyclic alcohol
  • Dihydrofuran
  • Alpha,beta-unsaturated carboxylic ester
  • Enoate ester
  • Tertiary alcohol
  • Lactone
  • Carboxylic acid ester
  • Secondary alcohol
  • Organoheterocyclic compound
  • Oxacycle
  • Acetal
  • Carboxylic acid derivative
  • Monocarboxylic acid or derivatives
  • Hydrocarbon derivative
  • Alcohol
  • Organic oxide
  • Organic oxygen compound
  • Carbonyl group
  • Organooxygen compound
  • Aliphatic heteropolycyclic compound
Molecular FrameworkAliphatic heteropolycyclic compounds
External Descriptors
Biological Properties
StatusDetected and Not Quantified
OriginExogenous
Cellular Locations
  • Extracellular
  • Membrane
Biofluid LocationsNot Available
Tissue Locations
  • Hypothalamus
  • Kidney
  • Liver
  • Platelet
  • Small Intestine
Applications
Biological Roles
Chemical Roles
Organoleptic EffectsNot Available
Physical Properties
StateSolid
AppearanceColorless to white crystals; or white crystalline powder (1).
Experimental Properties
PropertyValue
Melting Point217-221°C
Boiling PointNot Available
Solubility64.8 mg/L (at 25°C)
Predicted Properties
PropertyValueSource
Water Solubility0.13 g/LALOGPS
logP1.04ALOGPS
logP2.37ChemAxon
logS-3.8ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)7.15ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)-3ChemAxon
Physiological Charge0ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count13ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count6ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area203.06 ŲChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count7ChemAxon
Refractivity193.23 m³·mol⁻¹ChemAxon
Polarizability84.8 ųChemAxon
Number of Rings8ChemAxon
BioavailabilityNoChemAxon
Rule of FiveNoChemAxon
Ghose FilterNoChemAxon
Veber's RuleNoChemAxon
MDDR-like RuleYesChemAxon
Spectra
Spectra
Spectrum TypeDescriptionSplash KeyDeposition DateView
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted GC-MSPredicted GC-MS SpectrumNot AvailableNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-0h9s-0004022900-fb7295b1343cfcb0f262Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-00ec-0209043100-9967a858c77340d2fab3Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-007o-1419132100-e5de5e30c4299c931671Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-01tj-0114011900-e0edd63658065bb869f3Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-01bj-2519564400-bd5189ac4cf921dbac79Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-014i-6105930000-b03a6876fb182cec49e1Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-01q9-0113000900-5c07bff161d1ddd9c50eNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-01q9-2911000400-fe987c159da70447f56dNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-005a-6942010000-377898578023a42020d5Not AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-00os-0501095500-c884ce473f948cad43ceNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-004i-4900011400-932fc5fee2cbc1e58a5aNot AvailableView Spectrum
Predicted LC-MS/MSPredicted LC-MS/MS Spectrumsplash10-004l-5900001400-b3251bf0b534b08a8db8Not AvailableView Spectrum
Toxicity Profile
Toxicity ValuesNot Available
Toxicity / Toxin ClassNot Available
Mechanism of ToxicityDigoxin binds to a site on the extracellular aspect of the alpha-subunit of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump in the membranes of heart cells (myocytes) and decreases its function. This causes an increase in the level of sodium ions in the myocytes. This effect causes an increase in the length the cardiac action potential, which when combined with the effects of digoxin on the parasympathetic nervous system, lead to a decrease in heart rate. Increased amounts of calcium are then stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and released by each action potential, which is unchanged by digoxin. This leads to increased contractility of the heart. Digoxin also increases vagal activity via its action on the central nervous system, thus decreasing the conduction of electrical impulses through the AV node. (24) LD50 = 7.8 mg/kg (orally in mice).
Carcinogenicity (IARC Classification)2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans. (23)
Minimum Risk LevelNot Available
SymptomsAdverse affects of digoxin include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blurred vision, visual disturbances (yellow-green halos), confusion, drowsiness, dizziness, nightmares, agitation, and/or depression, as well as a higher acute sense of sensual activities. (24)
TreatmentTreatment of dioxin overdose includes supportive measure and administration of the antidote, antidigoxin (DIGIBIND). Toxicity can also be treated with higher than normal doses of potassium. (24)
Health Effects
Health EffectRelationshipDirectionReference
congestive heart failure?A heart disease that is characterized by any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with or pump a sufficient amount of blood throughout the body. (DO)is_treatment_forNot AvailablePMC8332605
cough?A sudden, often repetitive, spasmodic contraction of the thoracic cavity, resulting in violent release of air from the lungs and usually accompanied by a distinctive sound. (NCI CTCAE)is_treatment_forNot AvailablePMC1492602
heart failure?A disorder characterized by the inability of the heart to pump blood at an adequate volume to meet tissue metabolic requirements, or, the ability to do so only at an elevation in the filling pressure. (NCI CTCAE)is_treatment_forNot AvailablePMC7833388
atrial fibrillation?Atrial fibrillation (also called AFib) is an irregular and often rapid heart rate (arrhythmia) that occurs when the two upper chambers of the heart experience chaotic electrical signals. The result is a fast and irregular heart rhythm. The heart rate in atrial fibrillation may range from 100 to 175 beats a minute. Symptoms of Afib include general fatigue, rapid heartbeat, dizziness, weakness, sweating, shortness of breath. Afib can lead to blood clots, stroke, heart failure and other heart-related complications. More specifically, AFib doubles the risk of heart-related deaths and is associated with a 5-fold increased risk for stroke. AFib is found in about 1% of the population.is_treatment_forNot AvailablePMC3526672 , PMC7833388
dyspnea?is_treatment_forNot AvailablePMC1492602
bradycardia?associated_withNot AvailablePMC9283731
Exposure Sources
Source IDSourceSectorReference
CEDs000007Pesticides?Pesticides are synthetic chemicals designed to prevent, destroy, or control pests that threaten crops and agricultural productivity.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000010Insecticides?Insecticides are synthetic chemicals designed to control or eliminate insect pests that threaten crops and other agricultural products.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000019Indoor air?Indoor air can be a significant reservoir for synthetic chemical contaminants, which often originate from various sources within enclosed environments.Air, dust & atmospheric transportNot Available
CEDs000070Stormwater runoff?Stormwater runoff refers to the flow of rainwater or melted snow that does not soak into the ground and instead collects pollutants as it travels over impervious surfaces such as roads and parking lots.Automotive & urban infrastructureNot Available
CEDs000115Drinking water?Drinking water can be a medium for synthetic chemical contamination, often originating from various industrial processes and agricultural practices.Drinking water & water supplyNot Available
CEDs000120Wires and cables?Wires and cables are integral components in the transmission of electrical power and signals.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000121Printed circuit boards?Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are essential components in the manufacturing of electronic devices, serving as the backbone for electrical connections and circuit pathways.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000125Batteries?Batteries are devices that store and release electrical energy through electrochemical reactions.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000130Semiconductors?Semiconductors are materials that possess electrical conductivity between that of conductors and insulators, making them essential for various electronic applications, including transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000138Lubricants?Lubricants are synthetic or petroleum-derived substances used to reduce friction between surfaces in machinery and equipment, enhancing operational efficiency and longevity.Energy, oil & gasNot Available
CEDs000147Food packaging?Food packaging often utilizes synthetic chemicals, such as plastics and coatings, to enhance durability, moisture resistance, and shelf life.Food, food processing & cookwareNot Available
CEDs000174Lubricants?Lubricants are synthetic or petroleum-based substances used to reduce friction and wear between moving parts in machinery and equipment.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000234Medical devices?Medical devices often incorporate synthetic chemicals in their manufacturing processes, which can contribute to contamination in healthcare settings.Healthcare, pharmaceuticals & veterinary productsNot Available
CEDs000284Cardiac glycosides?Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that exert a potent effect on the cardiovascular system, primarily by increasing the force of heart contractions and influencing heart rate.Healthcare, pharmaceuticals & veterinary productsNot Available
CEDs000451Carpets and Rugs?Carpets and rugs are commonly manufactured using synthetic fibers such as nylon, polyester, and polypropylene, which can be derived from petrochemical sources.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000454Synthetic textiles?Synthetic textiles are materials derived from man-made fibers, such as polyester, nylon, and acrylic, which are produced through chemical processes involving petrochemicals.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000490Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000492Cell phones?Cell phones contain a variety of synthetic chemicals and materials, including plastics, metals, and glass, which can contribute to environmental contamination.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000493Capacitors?Capacitors are electronic components that store and release electrical energy, often using dielectric materials that can include synthetic chemicals.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000500Stairs And Ramps?Stairs and ramps in construction are often treated with various synthetic chemicals to enhance durability, slip resistance, and weather resistance.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000501Sunshades Awnings Or Outside Screens?Sunshades, awnings, and outside screens are often constructed using synthetic materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyester, or acrylic fabrics.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000502Sunshades Awnings Or Outside Screens?Sunshades, awnings, and outside screens are commonly used in construction to enhance energy efficiency and provide shade.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000503Tents Or Canopies?Tents and canopies used in various applications can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination primarily due to the materials from which they are made.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000504Adjustable Resistors?Adjustable resistors, commonly used in various electronic devices, can contribute to synthetic chemical contamination through the materials and substances used in their manufacturing and disposal.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000505Amplifiers?Amplifiers, commonly used in various electronic devices to enhance signal strength, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and processes involved in their production and disposal.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000506Antennas?Antennas, commonly used in communication technologies, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination through the materials and coatings used in their construction.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000508Coils?Coils are components used in various electrical and electronic applications, such as transformers, inductors, and motors.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000509Colour Television Systems?Colour television systems contain various synthetic chemicals that can lead to environmental contamination.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000510Communication Cables Or Conductors?Communication cables or conductors are essential components in the transmission of data and signals in various applications, including telecommunications and networking.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000511Conductors Or Conductive Bodies Characterised By The Conductive Materials?Conductors, or conductive bodies, are materials that allow the flow of electrical current, typically made from metals such as copper, aluminum, or silver.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000513Cores Yokes Or Armatures?Cores, yokes, or armatures are components commonly found in electrical devices, used to facilitate the magnetic and electrical functions within motors, transformers, and generators.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000514Discharge Lamps?Discharge lamps, including fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, are commonly used for lighting applications due to their energy efficiency and brightness.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000517Electric Switches?Electric switches, integral components in numerous devices, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and manufacturing processes involved in their production.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000518Electrically Stimulated Smoking Devices?Electrically stimulated smoking devices, commonly known as e-cigarettes or vape pens, utilize electrical components to heat a liquid solution, often containing nicotine, flavorings, and other additives, to produce an aerosol for inhalation.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000519Electrodes?Electrodes, used in various electrical and electronic applications, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials from which they are constructed and the processes involved in their manufacturing.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000520Emergency Protective Devices?Emergency protective devices, such as circuit breakers and surge protectors, are essential components in electrical systems designed to prevent damage from overcurrent and surges.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000521Fixed Capacitors And Their Manufacture?Fixed capacitors are passive electronic components used to store and release electrical energy, playing a critical role in various circuits.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000524Hybrid Capacitors?Hybrid capacitors are energy storage devices that combine the properties of electrolytic and supercapacitors, utilizing a combination of electrochemical principles to achieve higher energy density and power density.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000525Line Transmission Systems?Line Transmission Systems, commonly used for the distribution of electrical energy, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination through the insulation materials and coatings utilized in their construction.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000527Magnets?Magnets, commonly used in various electrical and electronic applications, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials used in their production.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000530Radio Transmission Systems?Radio transmission systems utilize a variety of synthetic chemicals in their manufacturing and maintenance processes.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000531Relays?Relays are electromechanical switches used to control circuits and manage electrical loads.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000532Selectors?Selectors are components used in various electronic devices to control the flow of electrical signals.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000533Sparking Plugs?Spark plugs are critical components in internal combustion engines, facilitating the ignition of fuel-air mixtures by generating a spark.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000535Superconducting Magnets And Superconducting Coils?Superconducting magnets and coils are utilized in various applications that require strong magnetic fields, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and particle accelerators.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000537Television Systems?Television systems can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the various materials and components used in their manufacture and operation.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000538Thin Magnetic Films?Thin magnetic films are layers of magnetic material ranging from a few nanometers to several micrometers in thickness, commonly used in applications such as magnetic sensors, data storage devices, and electronic components.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000540X Ray Tubes?X-ray tubes are devices used to produce X-rays for various applications, including medical imaging and industrial inspections.Electrical & Electronic EquipmentNot Available
CEDs000545Food Preservation?Food preservation often involves the use of synthetic chemicals, such as preservatives, flavor enhancers, and color additives, to extend shelf life and enhance the sensory qualities of food products.Food, food processing & cookwareNot Available
CEDs000553Treatment Of Hops?Hops, a key ingredient in brewing and food flavoring, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to various agricultural practices.Food, food processing & cookwareNot Available
CEDs000556Cigar Cigarettes?Cigar cigarettes are a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the combustion of various tobacco blends and additives.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000559Non Electric Simulated Smoking Devices?Non-electric simulated smoking devices, often designed to mimic the experience of smoking without combustion, can be sources of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and chemicals used in their construction and operation.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000560Other Smoking Requisites?Other smoking requisites, including items such as lighters, matches, and rolling papers, can introduce synthetic chemical contamination through various components and additives.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000561Perfumes Within Detergents And Soaps?Perfumes within detergents and soaps are synthetic fragrance compounds added to enhance the sensory experience of cleaning products.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000563Soap Detergents?Soap detergents are synthetic surfactants designed to enhance the cleaning efficacy of water by reducing surface tension, allowing for better interaction with dirt and grease.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000564Soap Dispensers?Soap dispensers, commonly used for dispensing liquid soaps and sanitizers, can become a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials used in their construction and the products they dispense.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000569Tobacco Smoke Filters?Tobacco smoke filters are designed to reduce the inhalation of harmful substances in cigarette smoke, including tar and other particulate matter.Household cleaning & consumer productsNot Available
CEDs000572Credit Card Holders?Credit card holders are often manufactured using synthetic polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyurethane, which may contain additives like plasticizers, stabilizers, and flame retardants.Household itemsNot Available
CEDs000578Making Cigars?The process of making cigars involves several steps, including the cultivation of tobacco, fermentation, and the application of various additives to enhance flavor and preservation.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000579Manufacture Of Iron Or Steel?The manufacture of iron or steel involves various processes, including smelting, refining, and alloying, which can result in the release of synthetic chemicals and contaminants.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000580Manufacture Preparation Of Tobacco Products?The manufacture and preparation of tobacco products involve various processes that can result in the introduction of synthetic chemicals into the environment.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000581Paper Making Machines?Paper making machines utilize various synthetic chemicals throughout the production process, including additives, coatings, and bleaching agents.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000583Anchoring Equipment?Anchoring equipment, commonly used in marine applications, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and coatings utilized in their manufacturing.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000584Buoys?Buoys, often used for navigation and marine monitoring, can be sources of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and coatings employed in their construction.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000589Life Buoys?Life buoys, commonly used in marine environments for safety and rescue operations, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials used in their production.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000590Lifeboat Equipment?Lifeboat equipment typically includes various synthetic materials used in the construction of life rafts, flotation devices, and safety gear.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000591Lifeboats?Lifeboats, used for emergency evacuation at sea, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials and substances used in their construction and maintenance.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000592Marine Propulsion Or Steering?Marine propulsion and steering systems often rely on various synthetic chemicals, including lubricants, fuels, and hydraulic fluids.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000595Ships?Ships, as vehicles for international trade and transportation, can be significant sources of synthetic chemical contamination in marine environments.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000596Acaricides?Acaricides are synthetic chemicals specifically designed to target and control mite populations that can damage crops and plants.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000601Lawn Mowers?Lawn mowers, particularly those powered by gasoline, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the combustion of fossil fuels and the use of engine oils.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000603Nematocides?Nematocides are synthetic chemicals specifically designed to control nematodes, which are microscopic roundworms that can cause significant damage to crops and plants.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000605Pest Repellants?Pest repellents, often formulated from synthetic chemicals, are widely used to protect crops from insect infestations and other pests.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000606Plant Growth Regulators?Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) are synthetic chemicals designed to influence the growth and development of plants.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000607Rodenticides(1)?Rodenticides are synthetic chemicals specifically formulated to control rodent populations, serving as a crucial tool in managing pests that can damage crops and spread diseases.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000608Rodenticides?Rodenticides are chemical substances specifically designed to control rodent populations by causing death through various mechanisms, including anticoagulation or neurotoxicity.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000609Aftershave?Aftershave is a grooming product typically used to soothe and protect the skin following shaving.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000610Aftersun Products?Aftersun products are designed to soothe and hydrate the skin after sun exposure, often containing various synthetic chemicals such as emollients, preservatives, and fragrances.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000611Anti Perspirants Or Body Deoderants?Antiperspirants and body deodorants commonly contain synthetic chemicals such as aluminum compounds, parabens, and synthetic fragrances.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000613Depilatories?Depilatories are products designed to remove unwanted hair through the application of synthetic chemicals that break down the protein structure of hair, facilitating its removal.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000614Essential Oils Or Perfumes?Essential oils and perfumes are complex mixtures of volatile compounds derived from natural or synthetic sources, commonly used for their aromatic properties.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000615Eye Makeup Products?Eye makeup products, including mascaras, eyeliners, and eyeshadows, often contain a variety of synthetic chemicals such as pigments, preservatives, and film-forming agents.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000617Lip Care Products?Lip care products, including lipsticks, balms, and glosses, often contain a variety of synthetic chemicals such as parabens, phthalates, and synthetic fragrances.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000618Lip Makeup Products?Lip makeup products, such as lipsticks, lip glosses, and lip liners, often contain a variety of synthetic chemicals, including pigments, preservatives, and emollients.Personal care & cosmeticsNot Available
CEDs000621Chutes And Slides?Chutes and slides, commonly found in playgrounds and recreational areas, are often constructed from synthetic materials such as plastics and rubber.Recreation & sports surfacesNot Available
CEDs000622Game Accessories?Game accessories, such as synthetic turf, athletic shoes, and other sports-related equipment, often incorporate various synthetic chemicals in their production.Recreation & sports surfacesNot Available
CEDs000624Merry Go Rounds?Merry-go-rounds, commonly found in playgrounds and recreational areas, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination primarily due to the materials used in their construction.Recreation & sports surfacesNot Available
CEDs000628See Saws?See saws, commonly found in playgrounds, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the materials used in their construction.Recreation & sports surfacesNot Available
CEDs000630Toys?Toys, particularly those made from synthetic materials such as plastics, can be a source of chemical contamination due to the presence of various additives and compounds used in their production.Recreation & sports surfacesNot Available
CEDs000632Apparel?Apparel production often involves the use of various synthetic chemicals, including dyes, finishing agents, and preservatives.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000642Footwear?Footwear production often involves the use of various synthetic chemicals, such as adhesives, dyes, and treatments, which can contribute to environmental contamination.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000643Headwear?Headwear made from synthetic materials often incorporates chemicals used in the manufacturing and finishing processes, such as dyes, flame retardants, and water repellents.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000650Purses Luggage Hand Bags?Purses, luggage, and handbags are often manufactured using synthetic materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane, and various types of nylon.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000652Ropes?Ropes manufactured from synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene, nylon, and polyester, are widely used in various applications, including marine, construction, and outdoor activities.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000653Sewing?Sewing processes often involve the use of various synthetic chemicals, which can become sources of contamination in the environment.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000661Umbrellas?Umbrellas are commonly manufactured using synthetic materials such as polyester, nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which can contribute to synthetic chemical contamination.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000662Yarns Or Threads?Yarns or threads used in textiles can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to the production processes and treatments they undergo.Textiles, leather & furnishingsNot Available
CEDs000663Sanitary Equipment?Sanitary equipment, including toilets, sinks, and drainage systems, can serve as conduits for synthetic chemical contamination.Wastewater, sanitation & biosolidsNot Available
CEDs000671Airplanes And Helicopters?Airplanes and helicopters are significant sources of synthetic chemical contamination primarily through the use of aviation fuels, lubricants, and de-icing agents.Aviation & AerospaceNot Available
CEDs000672Light Than Air Aircraft?Light than air aircraft, such as dirigibles and airships, utilize lifting gases like helium or hydrogen for buoyancy.Aviation & AerospaceNot Available
CEDs000673Unmanned Aerial Vehicles?Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, utilize various synthetic chemicals in their manufacturing, operation, and maintenance processes.Aviation & AerospaceNot Available
CEDs000679Phosphatic Fertilisers?Phosphatic fertilizers are synthetic chemical products primarily composed of phosphorus, which is essential for plant growth.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000680Saddles?Saddles, commonly used in various agricultural practices, can serve as a source of synthetic chemical contamination primarily through the materials and coatings used in their construction.Agriculture & land managementNot Available
CEDs000685Ceramics?Ceramics can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination through various additives and processing agents used in their production.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000686Clay Wares?Clay wares are ceramic products made from natural clay, often utilized in various construction applications such as tiles, bricks, and sanitary ware.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000688Glass Coatings?Glass coatings are synthetic chemical formulations applied to glass surfaces to enhance properties such as durability, UV resistance, and aesthetic appeal.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000693Silica Glass?Silica glass, primarily composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2), is widely used in various applications, including windows, glass facades, and insulation materials.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000696Nanotechnology?Nanotechnology involves the manipulation of materials at the molecular or atomic level, typically within the range of 1 to 100 nanometers.Industrial manufacturing & chemical processingNot Available
CEDs000697Submarines?Submarines, while essential for military and research purposes, can be a source of synthetic chemical contamination due to their use of various industrial chemicals.Marine, shipping & aquacultureNot Available
CEDs000699Mining Or Quarrying?Mining and quarrying operations can lead to synthetic chemical contamination through the release of various pollutants associated with the extraction and processing of minerals.Mining & metal processingNot Available
CEDs000727Printing Machines Or Presses?Printing machines or presses commonly utilize synthetic chemicals such as inks, solvents, and cleaning agents.Paper, pulp & fiber productsNot Available
CEDs000729Stamps?Stamps, particularly those produced using synthetic inks and adhesives, can contribute to chemical contamination when disposed of improperly.Paper, pulp & fiber productsNot Available
CEDs000733Walking Sticks?Walking sticks, while primarily designed for mobility assistance, can be sources of synthetic chemical contamination if not properly manufactured or maintained.Healthcare, pharmaceuticals & veterinary productsNot Available
CEDs000734Coating Compositions?Coating compositions, which include paints, sealants, and varnishes, are formulated with a variety of synthetic chemicals such as solvents, resins, pigments, and additives.Building & ConstructionNot Available
CEDs000739Inks?Inks are complex mixtures composed of pigments or dyes, solvents, resins, and additives used primarily for printing and writing applications.Paper, pulp & fiber productsNot Available
CEDs000740Paper?Paper production involves the processing of wood fibers and the use of various chemicals, which can lead to synthetic chemical contamination.Paper, pulp & fiber productsNot Available
CEDs000741Pigment Pastes?Pigment pastes are concentrated dispersions of pigments used to impart color and properties to materials.Paper, pulp & fiber productsNot Available
CEDs000743Sludge Treatment?Sludge treatment involves the processing of waste materials generated from wastewater treatment plants, which often contain a variety of organic and inorganic substances.Wastewater, sanitation & biosolidsNot Available
CEDs000744Water, Wastewater, & Sewage Treatment?Water, wastewater, and sewage treatment processes are critical for managing and mitigating pollutants in water systems.Wastewater, sanitation & biosolidsNot Available
Pathways
2 pathwaysPathway Source: PathBank
Targets
StructureProteinUniProt IDOrganismRelationshipDetails
Click to view 3D structureSodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1P50997Canis lupus familiarisPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.616
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
1.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
4
E-value
0.0778492
Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1 structureClick to view 3D structureNeurogenic locus notch homolog protein 1Q01705Mus musculusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.538
Applicability Domain
0.538
Statistical Significance
1.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
1
E-value
0.0778492
Click to view 3D structureSolute carrier organic anion transporter family member 4C1Q6ZQN7HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.513
Applicability Domain
0.813
Statistical Significance
1.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
3
E-value
0.0778492
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 structureClick to view 3D structureSignal transducer and activator of transcription 3P40763HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.51
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
3.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
93
E-value
0.233548
Sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1 structureClick to view 3D structureSodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1P05023HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.444
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
1.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
4
E-value
0.0778492
Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1 structureClick to view 3D structureSolute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1Q9Y6L6HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.354
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
8.90e-04
Supporting Reference Compounds
82
E-value
6.92858
E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ZFP91 structureClick to view 3D structureE3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ZFP91Q96JP5HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.322
Applicability Domain
0.322
Statistical Significance
8.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
1
E-value
0.622794
Nuclear receptor ROR-gamma structureClick to view 3D structureNuclear receptor ROR-gammaP51449HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.322
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
0.0065
Supporting Reference Compounds
102
E-value
50.3684
Nuclear receptor ROR-gamma structureClick to view 3D structureNuclear receptor ROR-gammaP51450Mus musculusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.305
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
0.0027
Supporting Reference Compounds
24
E-value
20.8636
Bile salt export pump structureClick to view 3D structureBile salt export pumpO95342HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.304
Applicability Domain
0.813
Statistical Significance
0.0036
Supporting Reference Compounds
104
E-value
28.0257
Click to view 3D structureSolute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1A4O35913Rattus norvegicusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.277
Applicability Domain
1.0
Statistical Significance
3.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
5
E-value
0.233548
Sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1 structureClick to view 3D structureSodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1P05024Sus scrofaPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.268
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
2.00e-05
Supporting Reference Compounds
1
E-value
0.155698
Click to view 3D structurePotassium-transporting ATPase alpha chain 2P54707HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.259
Applicability Domain
0.276 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
2.90e-04
Supporting Reference Compounds
2
E-value
2.25763
G-protein coupled bile acid receptor 1 structureClick to view 3D structureG-protein coupled bile acid receptor 1Q8TDU6HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.242
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0166
Supporting Reference Compounds
54
E-value
128.918
Androgen receptor structureClick to view 3D structureAndrogen receptorP10275HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.242
Applicability Domain
0.322
Statistical Significance
0.0486
Supporting Reference Compounds
146
E-value
378.425
Sex hormone-binding globulin structureClick to view 3D structureSex hormone-binding globulinP04278HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.241
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0044
Supporting Reference Compounds
33
E-value
34.6429
Corticosteroid-binding globulin structureClick to view 3D structureCorticosteroid-binding globulinP08185HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.237
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0037
Supporting Reference Compounds
21
E-value
29.1935
Androgen receptor structureClick to view 3D structureAndrogen receptorP15207Rattus norvegicusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.226
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0211
Supporting Reference Compounds
73
E-value
164.573
Cytochrome P450 3A4 structureClick to view 3D structureCytochrome P450 3A4P08684HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.226
Applicability Domain
0.322
Statistical Significance
0.8076
Supporting Reference Compounds
1538
E-value
6286.95
Voltage-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channel KCNH2 structureClick to view 3D structureVoltage-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channel KCNH2Q12809HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.222
Applicability Domain
0.414
Statistical Significance
0.8313
Supporting Reference Compounds
1498
E-value
6471.76
Click to view 3D structureProgesterone receptorQ690N0Bos taurusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.22
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0061
Supporting Reference Compounds
40
E-value
47.5659
Glucocorticoid receptor structureClick to view 3D structureGlucocorticoid receptorP04150HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.217
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.1099
Supporting Reference Compounds
154
E-value
855.485
Click to view 3D structureSex hormone-binding globulinP08689Rattus norvegicusPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.213
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0022
Supporting Reference Compounds
2
E-value
16.8933
Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member B10 structureClick to view 3D structureAldo-keto reductase family 1 member B10O60218HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.213
Applicability Domain
0.235 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0588
Supporting Reference Compounds
49
E-value
457.987
Mineralocorticoid receptor structureClick to view 3D structureMineralocorticoid receptorP08235HumansPredicted (SEA)
Prediction Confidence Score
0.212
Applicability Domain
0.268 Low confidence
Statistical Significance
0.0698
Supporting Reference Compounds
74
E-value
543.699
Sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1 structureClick to view 3D structureSodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit alpha-1P05023HumansKnownDigoxin inhibits the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, resulting in an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations. Increased intracellular concentrations of calcium may promote activation of contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin). Digoxin also acts on the electrical activity of the heart, increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization, shortening the action potential duration, and decreasing the maximal diastolic potential.
Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1 structureClick to view 3D structureSolute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B1Q9Y6L6HumansKnownDigoxin inhibits the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, resulting in an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations. Increased intracellular concentrations of calcium may promote activation of contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin). Digoxin also acts on the electrical activity of the heart, increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization, shortening the action potential duration, and decreasing the maximal diastolic potential.
Cytochrome P450 3A4 structureClick to view 3D structureCytochrome P450 3A4P08684HumansKnownNot Available
ATP-dependent translocase ABCB1 structureClick to view 3D structureATP-dependent translocase ABCB1P08183HumansKnownNot Available
Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B3 structureClick to view 3D structureSolute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1B3Q9NPD5HumansKnownNot Available
Androgen receptor structureClick to view 3D structureAndrogen receptorP10275HumansKnownNot Available
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma structureClick to view 3D structurePeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gammaP37231HumansKnownNot Available
Estrogen receptor structureClick to view 3D structureEstrogen receptorP03372HumansKnownNot Available
Click to view 3D structureNuclear receptor ROR-betaQ92753HumansKnownNot Available
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha structureClick to view 3D structurePeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alphaQ07869HumansKnownNot Available
Aromatase structureClick to view 3D structureAromataseP11511HumansKnownNot Available
Vitamin D3 receptor structureClick to view 3D structureVitamin D3 receptorP11473HumansKnownNot Available
Concentrations
Not Available
External Links
DrugBank IDDB00390
HMDB IDHMDB0001917
FooDB IDFDB022736
Phenol Explorer IDNot Available
KNApSAcK IDC00003618
BiGG IDNot Available
BioCyc IDNot Available
METLIN ID2047
PDB IDNot Available
Wikipedia LinkDigoxin
Chemspider ID2006532
ChEBI ID4551
PubChem Compound ID2724385
Kegg Compound IDC06956
YMDB IDNot Available
ECMDB IDNot Available
References
Synthesis Reference

Wolfgang Voigtlander, Fritz Kaiser, Wolfgang Schaumann, Kurt Stach, “Preparation of C22-alkyl derivative of digoxin.” U.S. Patent US3981862, issued October, 1972.

MSDSLink
General References
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  2. Thompson DF, Carter JR: Drug-induced gynecomastia. Pharmacotherapy. 1993 Jan-Feb;13(1):37-45. [PubMed: 8094898]
  3. Doering W, Konig E, Sturm W: [Digitalis intoxication: specifity and significance of cardiac and extracardiac symptoms. part I: Patients with digitalis-induced arrhythmias (author's transl)]. Z Kardiol. 1977 Mar;66(3):121-8. [PubMed: 857452]
  4. Kaplanski J, Weinhouse E, Topaz M, Genchik G: Verapamil and digoxin: interactions in the rat. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1983 Dec;42(3):377-88. [PubMed: 6665298]
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  12. Chirinos JA, Castrellon A, Zambrano JP, Jimenez JJ, Jy W, Horstman LL, Willens HJ, Castellanos A, Myerburg RJ, Ahn YS: Digoxin use is associated with increased platelet and endothelial cell activation in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm. 2005 May;2(5):525-9. [PubMed: 15840479]
  13. Mikkaichi T, Suzuki T, Onogawa T, Tanemoto M, Mizutamari H, Okada M, Chaki T, Masuda S, Tokui T, Eto N, Abe M, Satoh F, Unno M, Hishinuma T, Inui K, Ito S, Goto J, Abe T: Isolation and characterization of a digoxin transporter and its rat homologue expressed in the kidney. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Mar 9;101(10):3569-74. Epub 2004 Mar 1. [PubMed: 14993604]
  14. Dasgupta A, Trejo O: Suppression of total digoxin concentrations by digoxin-like immunoreactive substances in the MEIA digoxin assay. Elimination of negative interference by monitoring free digoxin concentrations. Am J Clin Pathol. 1999 Mar;111(3):406-10. [PubMed: 10078117]
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  17. Bentur Y, Tsipiniuk A, Taitelman U: Postmortem digoxin-like immunoreactive substances (DLIS) in patients not treated with digoxin. Hum Exp Toxicol. 1999 Feb;18(2):67-70. [PubMed: 10100017]
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